Scientific data returned by the Rosetta orbiter might have proven that Earth's water came from asteroids, not comets

 

 

Scientific data returned by the Rosetta orbiter might have proven that Earth's water came from asteroids, not comets The findings are based on the Rosina instrument, which 'sniffed' gas using a spectrometer on 67P It found that water there had a different ratio of deuterium-to-hydrogen than water on Earth Scientists will now be hoping instruments on Rosetta's lander like Ptolemy can confirm or deny the findings Yesterday it was announced Philae found organic molecules from comet 67P in early data from its instruments The lander managed to use all ten of its instruments on the comet before its primary battery died Esa is analysing scientific data gathered by the Philae probe after its 'successful' comet landing Philae made three historic touchdowns on 67P on Wednesday, making it the first craft to land on a comet How did water come to exist on our planet? Most scientists are of the opinion that it didn't begin here on Earth, instead being transported from elsewhere in the solar system, but whether it came from an asteroid or a comet was a mystery. That was one of the key questions Esa was hoping the Rosetta mission would solve when it arrived at comet 67P in August and it may now have an answer that could be verified by the Philae lander on the surface. Using the Rosetta Orbiter Spectrometer for Ion and Neutral Analysis - or Rosina - the spacecraft 'sniffed' the comet's atmosphere as it remained in orbit and analysed its composition. It found that water in the comet's atmosphere had a different ratio of deuterium-to-hydrogen than water on Earth. This may be the final nail in the coffin for the theory that comets brought water to Earth - and it may have finally proven that we have asteroids to thank for allowing life on our planet to thrive.  Scroll down for video +10 Data from an instrument on the Rosetta orbiter has suggested that asteroids, not comets, are the origin of water on Earth. It is hoped that the findings can be confirmed by the Philae lander on the surface (artist's illustration shown) COULD GAS RESURRECT PHILAE? The increasing amount of sunlight may serve another purpose besides charging Philae's dead battery. As the comet warms, it releases jets of gas, which could potentially hoist Philae out of its ditch. 'It could be a natural way that it gets lifted up,' former Rosetta manager Gerhard Schwehm said at a teleconferenced NASA science advisory panel meeting in Washington, D.C. 'If a little activity starts there, then the chance that it comes off is fairly high.' All of the deuterium and hydrogen in the universe was made just after the Big Bang about 13.7 billion years ago, making their ratio important. The ratio of the two in water varies from location to location depending on when the water formed, and so by comparing the ratio found in extra-terrestrial objects to Earth’s water, it’s hoped the ration can be found. Water molecules are thought to have been part of the disc of dust and gas that ultimately formed the sun and its planets, but Earth began as a hot molten rock that would have been inhospitable to water early in its life up to 3.8 billion years ago. The preferred theory is that an asteroid or a comet - both of which have ice in various quantities - crashed to Earth and delivered water when our planet was a more moderate temperature. In November 2010, Nasa’s Deep Impact spacecraft flew past a comet called Hartley 2 and collected samples that indicated its water had a similar composition to Earth, but in recent years the asteroid theory has been favoured. And now the latest results from Rosetta could confirm an asteroids as our origin. The initial findings were hinted at by Rosina principle investigator Dr Kathrin Altwegg of the University of Bern, reports Science. ‘Altwegg says the result for 67P could make asteroids the primary suspect again, writes Eric Hand. Further studies of the data will be needed to confirm the finding and they may be hiding in the scientific data returned by the Philae lander, particularly its Ptolemy instrument. Ptolemy is a gas analyser that was used to measure ratios of isotopes such as hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. The news comes as the Philae team revealed some of the first science that had been returned by the lander yesterday. Esa released early scientific data from the Philae lander, revealing not only organic molecules on comet 67P but also the structure and composition of the comet as well. The data returned from the Cosac (Cometary Sampling and Composition Experiment) instrument showed that the comet has an organic compound containing carbon - an important progenitor for life as we know it. It was also announced that the surface of the comet was far harder than researchers had expected. Before Philae's battery died they were also able to form a 3D mapping mission of the comet's interior using the Rosetta spacecraft. Rosetta's lander captivated the world by landing on the surface of a comet last week, but went into hibernation mode late on Friday when its primary battery ran out of power. However, scientists also said they are 'very confident' it will wake up again when the comet moves into an orbit where more sunlight hits its solar panels in a few months - and one Nasa expert even thinks a jet of gas from the comet could move it sooner. Further analysis of the various scientific data returned by Philae will be needed before any firm  conclusions can be drawn. But the tentative discovery of organic molecules by Cosac is certainly promising. It's also unclear to what extent Philae's drill was able to penetrate the surface, and whether or not it was able to get a sample back to the lander for analysis - however there have been some suggestions that it failed to do so. +10 This was one of the first pictures return by Philae from the surface of comet 67P. Yesterday scientists said they are 'very confident' it will 'wake up' when the comet moves into an orbit where more sunlight hits is solar panels in a few months +10 Illustrated here are the various scientific instruments on the Philae lander that were used to study the comet when attached to the surface Before going into hibernation at 00:36 GMT on 15 November 2014, the Philae lander was able to conduct some work using power supplied by its primary battery. With its 10 instruments, the mini laboratory sniffed the atmosphere, drilled, hammered and studied Comet 67P/ Churyumov-Gerasimenko while over 500 million kilometres from Earth. It was controlled and monitored from the German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt; DLR) Lander Control Center (LCC). Now, the complicated data analysis begins. DLR's Scientific Director for the project, Ekkehard Kührt, said the team were pleased with the results. 'We have collected a great deal of valuable data, which could only have been acquired through direct contact with the comet,' he said. 'Together with the measurements performed by the Rosetta orbiter, we are well on our way to achieving a greater understanding of comets. Their surface properties appear to be quite different than was previously thought.' The team responsible for the Mupus (Multi-Purpose Sensors for Surface and Sub-Surface Science) instrument, which hammered a probe into the comet, estimates that Comet 67P is hard as ice: 'Although the power of the hammer was gradually increased, we were not able to go deep into the surface,' said Tilman Spohn from the DLR Institute of Planetary Research, who is leading the research team. '67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko proved to be a "tough nut to crack."' Only the thermal sensors and accelerometers in the anchors that should have fixed Philae to the comet's surface were not used, because they were not deployed during the touchdown. The team of the SESAME experiment (Surface Electrical, Seismic and Acoustic Monitoring Experiment) also confirmed that Churyumov-Gerasimenko is not nearly as soft and fluffy as it was believed to be. 'The strength of the ice founds under a layer of dust on the first landing site is surprisingly high,' says Klaus Seidensticker from the DLR Institute of Planetary Research. The instrument Casse, which sits in the feet of the lander, was turned on during the descent and clearly registered the first landing as Philae came into contact with the comet. From additional data, the mechanical properties of Churyumov-Gerasimenko will be derived. Two other instruments suggest that cometary activity at this landing site is low, as well as revealing the presence of a large amount of water ice under the lander. The last of the 10 instruments on board the Philae lander to be activated was the Sampling, Drilling and Distribution (SD2) subsystem, which was designed to provide soil samples for the Cosac and Ptolemy instruments. It is certain that the drill was activated, as were all the steps to transport the sample to the appropriate oven. Cosac also worked as planned. Now scientists need to analyse the data to determine whether a soil sample was actually examined in the gas chromatograph - but unfortunately this does not look likely at the moment. Overall, the team say they are now confident they will hear form the probe again. 'I'm very confident that Philae will resume contact with us and that we will be able to operate the instruments again,' said DLR Lander Project Manager Stephan Ulamec. The increasing amount of sunlight may serve another purpose besides charging Philae's dead battery. As the comet warms, it releases jets of gas, which could potentially hoist Philae out of its ditch. 'It could be a natural way that it gets lifted up,' former Rosetta manager Gerhard Schwehm said at a teleconferenced NASA science advisory panel meeting in Washington, D.C. 'If a little activity starts there, then the chance that it comes off is fairly high.' Gravity on the comet's small body is about 100,000 times less than Earth's, giving Philae the relative weight of a piece of paper. 'Perhaps it was good that (Philae) didn't fire the harpoons because if they would not have penetrated you might have had a much bigger problem,' he said. Early results from the ongoing Rosetta mission are expected to be released next month at the American Geophysical Union conference in San Francisco. WHAT INSTRUMENTS DOES PHILAE HAVE AND WHAT DID THEY DO? Rosetta's probe, Philae,has ten instruments onboard. All instruments were deployed in the mission. APXS: The 'Alpha Proton X-ray Spectrometer' is designed to study the chemical composition of the landing site and track any potential changes during the comet's approach to the sun. Civa: This stands for 'Comet Nucleus Infrared and Visible Analyser'. The instrument is made up of six cameras and is able to take take panoramic pictures of the comet surface. Consert: The 'Comet Nucleus Sounding Experiment by Radiowave Transmission' studies the internal structure of the comet. Cosac: An instrument used to detect and identify complex organic moleculed. Cosac stands for 'Cometary Sampling and Composition' Ptolemy: This instrument is used to understand the geochemistry of light elements, such as hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen. Mupus: The 'Multi-purpose Sensors for Surface and Sub-Surface Science' instrument studies the properties of the comet surface and sub-surface Rolis: The 'Rosetta Lander Imaging System' provided some of the the first close-up images of the landing site Romap: Philae's 'Rosetta Lander Magnetometer and Plasma Monitor' is designed to study the magnetic field and plasma environment of the comet SD2: This is the lander's drill, and was deployed on Friday in order to collect material from the comet for analysis Sesame: The 'Surface Electric Sounding and Acoustic Monitoring Experiment' looks at the electrical parameters of the comet Once the rechargeable secondary battery has been warmed by sunlight again, Philae will restart and the DLR LCC team will take their places at the control consoles again. 'At the first landing site, we would, of course, have had better solar illumination conditions,' says Ulamec. 'Now we are somewhat in shadow, we will need more time to charge.' One advantage of the shadier landing site in a crater is that the Philae lander will not overheat as quickly as the comet approaches the Sun, but will benefit from the stronger sunlight. The team managed to rotate the lander during the night of 14/15 November 2014, so that the largest solar panel is now aligned towards the Sun. Stephan Ulamec believes it is probable that in the spring of 2015, the DLR LCC will once again communicate with Philae and receive data about how the lander is faring on Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. +10 This incredible series of images shows Philae first's bounce on the surface of comet 67P at the initial landing site, named Agilkia. The times are in GMT. The first four images show the moments leading up to the first landing on the surface, and the final image in the top right shows the direction the probe went in after its first bounce - and scientists are hoping to spot its final resting place in later images In the summer of 2015, it might be possible that temperatures on the comet will allow Philae's battery to be recharged. 'The orbiter will continue with its overflights to receive any signals from the lander once Philae wakes up from hibernation.' Of the numerous instruments used by the lander, one was designed to measure the temperature of the comet while a drill was used to collect samples and analyse them. After a successful manouevre to rotate the largest solar panel out of the shadow of the cliff the probe is wedged against, scientists said there is a chance the probe might wake up again in a few months when the comet is closer to the sun and more sunlight is available. On Friday, scientists made contact with Rosetta's lander for the last time and managed to turn it towards the sun after using its drill in a last gasp attempt to charge its batteries. Controllers hope that by exposing one of the larger solar panels to the meagre sunlight that is falling on one of the smaller ones, they can provide enough power to charge its batteries. They now face an agonising wait to see if, and when, it wakes up. The probe is thought to be resting at an angle in the shadow of a crater wall more than half a mile from its planned landing site. +10 This incredible image shows the moment the Philae lander bounced off the surface for the first time, on its way to a height of 0.62 miles (1km), before returning to the surface of the comet and bouncing again Ullanec confirmed the lander was able to send all of its data back to Earth before it 'died' - and celebrated with champagne as the rover's battery power slowly ebbed away. 'Philae has fallen into 'idle mode' - a possibly long silence. In this mode, all instruments and most systems on board are shut down,' the European Space Agency said on its blog in a post entitled Our Lander's Asleep. The lander's Twitter feed broke the news of its demise, saying: 'I'm feeling a bit tired, did you get all my data? I might take a nap…' - but then added 'I did it! I became the first spacecraft to land on a comet & study it! But it's not over yet…' They also revealed they had spotted the lander's first landing site, which was captured in images from Rosetta - but still were not sure where it had ended up after two more 'bounces'. 'The rotation of the lander's body could result in more power if one of the larger solar panels can catch the illumination that is falling on the smaller,' said Esa's Mark McCaughrean, senior science advisor. 'All things being equal, the same amount of sunlight falling on a larger panel should result in more power being generated.' Philae was thought to be partially in darkness beneath a cliff and, crucially, its largest solar panel was not receiving any sunlight. This means its secondary battery could not be properly charged unless it was rotated after its primary battery ran out of power - which scientists managed to perform before the main battery died. Europe makes space history as Philae probe lands on comet   The probe landed on the comet at around 3.30pm GMT on Wednesday but then bounced twice - first to a height of 0.62 miles (1km) and then to a much lower height of 65ft (20 metres) before coming to rest. It is also thought to be about 0.62 miles (1km) from its intended landing site. Scientists described the ground as being more like a 'trampoline' than rock, owing to its soft and powdery texture, which may have caused the unsteady landing of the probe. +10 The final approach: This image shows comet 67P/CG from a distance of approximately 1.8 miles (3km) from the surface. Philae is now thought to be on the surface but its exact orientation is unknown. It bounced twice before coming to rest HOW DO ROSETTA AND ITS LANDER PHILAE SEND IMAGES BACK TO EARTH? Despite being more than 310 million miles (500 million km) from Earth, Rosetta and Philae are sending back vital data and images using radio waves. The transmissions are relayed through Rosetta's radio equipment and travel at the speed of light - almost 186,400 miles/300,000km per second. However, because Earth is so far away it takes around half an hour for the signals to be received by mission control in Darmstadt, Germany. Complex antennae are required to pick up space radio frequency communications as the signals are relatively weak by the time they arrive on Earth. For comparison, the distance between Rosetta and Earth is around than three times the distance between the Earth and the sun. The Philae lander doesn't have as much radio equipment as it only needs to send data to Rosetta 12.4 miles (20km) away. When it needs to send data back or receive commands from mission control, the signals are relayed through the Rosetta spacecraft. On Wednesday, British scientist Dr Matt Taylor, who played a key role in the mission, said: 'To see this mountaineering effort, that we've descended a lander to the surface of a comet, I can't put words to it. It's beautiful.' And the expert was so confident of success that he had even had an image of the space probe tattooed on his right leg. Before the attempt on Wednesday, there was also a good luck message from a man who had once boasted of boldly going into space himself. Star Trek actor William Shatner sent the team a video in which the 83-year-old said: 'Good luck Rosetta, Philae's gonna land.' +10 Rosetta has also been aiming to work out the plasma characteristics of the comet (illustrated) PHILAE'S LANDING IS A MAJOR STEP FOR HUMANITY TO 'MOVE OFF THIS PLANET', SAYS NASA CHIEF The historic touchdown of Philae on comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko could be big step toward 'moving off this planet' and 'taking' the entire solar system. This is according to Nasa's planetary science head, Jim Green, who said the solar system is now in reach of wider human exploration. The space agency is hoping to send humans to Mars in the 2030s, and data from Rosetta's mission could help make that a reality by revealing more planets in our solar system. 'How audacious! How exciting!' Green said, after the landing was made. 'The solar system is mankind's - this mission is the first step to take it. 'It's ours… It's these steps that will lead us beyond this planet and on to Mars and out into the solar system.' 'I truly believe that a single planet species will not survive long. It's our destiny to move off this planet.' Nasa described yesterday's landing as 'a great day for space exploration.' 'We congratulate Esa on their successful landing on a comet today,' said John Grunsfeld. 'This achievement represents a breakthrough moment in the exploration of our solar system and a milestone for international cooperation.' Scientists hope that samples drilled out from the comet will unlock details about how the planets - and possibly even life - evolved. Comets date back to the formation of the solar system some 4.5 billion years ago. Scientists suspect impacting comets delivered water to early Earth. One scientist then described the seven hours of 'terror' they went through to drop the Philae lander 13.6 miles (21.9km) above the comet from its mothership, Rosetta. Dr Matthew Genge, of Imperial College London, said during the wait: 'This is the most difficult landing in space history - like landing a balloon in a city centre on a windy day with your eyes closed.' Much of the equipment aboard the lander was switched on for the first time after lying dormant during the ten-year journey. Klim Churyumov, one of the Ukrainians who discovered the comet 45 years ago and named it, said from mission control in Darmstadt, Germany: 'We saw the first light from this comet in 1969, now we are landing on it. It is a fantastic, outstanding event, the first like it in human civilization.' New address: The lander announced its arrival on Twitter with this historic tweet for its ten year mission. Throughout this week, mission control have been communicating Philae's status through social networks as the world awaits news of its battery life WHAT IS THE MIDAS INSTRUMENT? +10 The Midas instrument on Philae is designed to study the dust particles flung from the comet Midas is the Micro-Imaging Dust Analysis System. It is designed to study the dust particles flung from the comet as it is heated by the sun and becomes active. When comets pass through the inner solar system, the ices buried below their dark surface are gradually heated. As this gas streams away from the comet's surface, it drags along dust particles – themselves tiny pieces of rock, ice and organic material. Sunlight reflected from billions of such particles result in the beautiful dust tails seen from Earth on particle population, size, volume and shape. Midas is one of several instruments that will study cometary dust. To collect particles Midas has a funnel, which usually points towards the comet. Behind this is a wheel with sticky targets mounted around its circumference. After dust has been collected, the wheel is rotated to move the dust to the microscope for analysis. By scanning over the dust grain, line by line, scientists can build a 3D picture. Knowing the size, shape and structure of these particles tells us about how and where these particles formed. These particles are remnants of when the solar system formed 4.5 billion years ago and could reveal how planets formed, and perhaps on life came to be on Earth. Ptolemy, a British-built laboratory the size of a shoebox, will be used to analyse the composition of samples from the 4.5 billion-year-old comet. Scientists hope the £1 billion ($1.6 billion) project will solve some of the greatest puzzles in science - including the origins of life on Earth. Open University Professor Ian Wright, who helped create Ptolemy, said: 'The idea that comets may have brought the building blocks of life to Earth is one of the reasons why we want to study them.' Professor Stanley Cowley, planetary scientist at the University of Leicester, added: 'It is an interesting relic from that otherwise inaccessible epoch.' 'It's complicated to land on a comet, and complicated to understand what has happened during this landing,' said Dr Stefan Ulamec, Philae Lander Manager. +10 Rosetta has chased comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko through space for more than ten years in what has been described as 'the sexiest, most fantastic mission ever' +10 LA vs 67P: This image combines a photograph of Los Angeles with an image from the Rosetta spacecraft rendezvousing with Churyumov-Gerasimenko, prior to going into orbit and eventually landing. The comet is around 2.2 by 2.5 miles (3.5 by 4km)

The mystery of the Sudbury Basin solved: The second largest crater on Earth was caused by a massive COMET hitting the planet 1.8 billion years ago Ontario crater is 39 miles long and 19 miles wide, and 9.3 miles deep Was caused caused by a comet colliding with Earth 1.8 billion years ago It is one of the biggest impact craters on Earth - and until now, scientists have been unsure how it got there. The Sudbury Basin in Ontario, Canada, is 39 miles long and 19 miles wide - and 9.3  miles deep. Researchers have been unsure how it formed - but now say it was a giant comet, not a meteorite as previously thought. They say it was caused caused by a comet colliding with our planet over 1.8 billion years ago. +4 The Sudbury Basin in Ontario, Canada, is 39 miles long and 19 miles wide - and 9.3 miles deep. It was formed by a comet hitting Earth 1.8 billion years ago, researchers have found. THE SUDBURY BASIN Following the impact, the large impact crater filled with magma containing nickel, copper, platinum, palladium, gold, and other metals. As a result of these metal deposits, the Sudbury area is one of the world's major mining communities. Due to the high mineral content of its soil, the floor of the basin is among the best agricultural land in Northern Ontario. Collaborative research led by geologists at Trinity College Dublin has found strong evidence that one of the largest preserved impact structures on Earth was caused by a comet colliding with our planet over 1.8 billion years ago. The findings of this ancient impact are particularly topical with the current mission to provide more information about comets successfully relaying images of Comet 67P to the European Space Agency. A critical aim of the mission was to test whether the terrestrial hydrosphere was delivered by comets to an originally dry Earth. In a recently published study in the international journal Terra Nova, the Trinity-led geologists explain the rationale behind their assertion that the Sudbury Basin in Ontario, Canada, was caused by a comet - and not a meteorite. Comets are composed by dust and frozen gas and carry few heavy elements, whereas meteorites are solid rocks that delivered iron-loving elements, such as platinum, to a younger Earth. By conducting geochemical analyses of the siderophile (iron-loving) elements found in and around the crater fill – and by modelling the impact with computer software – the geologists showed that whatever crashed to Earth was almost completely vaporised on entry. +4 The large impact crater filled with magma containing nickel, copper, platinum, palladium, gold, and other metals. +4 The Sudbury Basin in Ontario, Canada, is 39 miles long and 19 miles wide - and 9.3 miles deep. EARTH'S BIGGEST CRATERS The Vredefort crater, Free State Province, South Africa: 190 miles wide - created 2billion years ago The Sudbury Basin, Ontario, Canada: 160 miles wide - created 1.8billion years ago East Warburton Basin, South Australia: 120 miles wide - created 300million years ago A meteorite of sufficient size to create a crater as large as the Sudbury Basin should only be partially vaporised on entry, which leaves a 'comet-as-culprit' scenario as by far the most likely. Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the School of Natural Sciences at Trinity, Balz Kamber, said: 'Our findings provide further evidence that some very large terrestrial impact basins were created by comets, which is important and interesting in the context of the early bombardment of our inner Solar System – it might well be that comets were responsible for bringing volatile elements to the young Earth.' The large impact crater filled with magma containing nickel, copper, platinum, palladium, gold, and other metals. +4 An Image of the basin taken from Space Shuttle Challenger in 1984/1985. It is the second-largest known impact crater or astrobleme on Earth, as well as one of the oldest. A shatter cone from the area, a rare geological feature that only forms in the bedrock beneath meteorite impact craters or underground nuclear explosions.

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Bolts from the blue – and the grey

 

 

 

 

Bolts from the blue – and the grey:       A flash of lightning, its fierce tendrils joining for a split-second the heavens and the Earth, is one of the purest distillations of the awesome power of Mother Nature. So it's no wonder that ancient cultures from Greece to West Africa to the Middle East to the Indus Valley have identified the ferocious thunder bolt with their most-powerful gods. And its capacity to capture our imagination has waned little with the passage of time. Even in our era of scientific certainty, when a flash of lightning streaks across the sky, its magnificent power and attendant rumble is enough to arouse a primal dread in even the boldest. It's that fearsome majesty which spurs Australian photographer Craig Eccles to travel up to 300 miles in anticipation of a major storm - just so he can catch it on camera. 'I have seen bolts stretch for miles across the sky,' says the photography teacher from Perth, Western Australia. Though, he adds: 'For me, it's not all about the lightning bolt - sometimes it's being in pitch black and in a split second, it appears as day. 'Every storm is a spectacle in itself and you never know where it is going to hit. For me it's a rush. I love it and can't get enough. Being caught in the moment and capturing it all to share is amazing.' +14 Majestic: Myriad thunder bolts banish the gloom in this massive electrical storm over Western Australia in this picture taken by storm chasing photographer Craig Eccles +14 Fearsome: The sky seems more impenetrable than the earth in this photograph capturing lightning bolts streaking across the sky over the coast of Western Australia +14 Dedication: Mr Eccles travels up to 300 miles in anticipation of watching a major storm along the southern region of Western Australia +14 Eye of the storm: Visiting remote towns and abandoned scenery, the 42-year-old photography teacher's hobby, interest and speciality takes him to unusual places +14 'If you hear thunder you are too close': Safety-conscious Mr Eccles tries to stay a minimum of ten miles away from the centre of the storm WHAT CAUSES LIGHTNING? Thrilling: Across the atmosphere of Earth, lightning flashes about 50 times per second, 4.3 million times a day and roughly 1.5 billion times a year Across the atmosphere of Earth, lightning flashes about 50 times per second, 4.3 million times a day and roughly 1.5 billion times a year. But remarkably, despite its frequency, the mechanisms that govern its appearance are not well understood. What is known is that lightning consists of a massive electrostatic discharge between electrically charged regions within clouds, or between a cloud and the surface of the Earth. A typical cloud to ground lightning flash culminates in the formation of an electrically conducting plasma channel through the air that is usually in excess of 3 miles tall, from within the cloud to the ground's surface. Lightning primarily occurs when warm air is mixed with colder air masses, resulting in atmospheric disturbances necessary for polarising the atmosphere. However, it can also occur during dust storms, forest fires, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, and even in the cold of winter, where the lightning is known as thundersnow. On Earth, the place where lightning occurs most often is near the small village of Kifuka in the mountains of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. On average, this region receives 158 lightning strikes per square kilometre per year. Other lightning hotspots include Catatumbo in Venezuela, Singapore, Teresina in northern Brazil, and 'Lightning Alley' in Central Florida. Oddly enough, Australia is relatively quiet on the lightning front.  +14 'I have seen bolts stretch for miles': If he finds himself too close to where the lightning strikes, Mr Eccles cowers in his car for safety until the storm passes overhead +14 Storm chaser: Mr Eccles tracks a storm's path by monitoring radars to see where it develops and to see if he can determine where it will end up +14 Heavenly glory: He then sets up his camera on a tripod with a 20 second exposure to capture the lightning bolts in their entirety +14 'I have never seen an identical storm': Mr Eccles has spent 22 years photographing electrical storms, with Australia's huge horizons offering the perfect backdrop +14 Dedication: 'There are not many roads, dirt roads or tracks in Western Australia that I have not been down chasing a storm,' he says +14 Dangers: 'Every storm is a spectacle in itself and you never know where it is going to hit so I always keep a safe distance' +14 Power: Lightning is a massive electrostatic discharge between the electrically charged regions within clouds or between a cloud and the surface of the Earth +14 Tiddler: Charged regions within the atmosphere temporarily equalise themselves through a lightning flash. It becomes as a strike if it hits the ground +14 Magnificent: Intra-cloud lightning like this most commonly occurs between the upper anvil portion and lower reaches of a given thunderstorm These jaw-dropping pictures show the moment a bright flash of lightning strikes through the center of an eerie, UFO-shaped cloud. The unusual clouds filled the skyline over farmland near Broken Bow, Nebraska, during an incredible supercell thunderstorm. Freelance photographer Vanessa Neufield, 36, couldn't believe her luck when she caught the amazing lightning strike on camera. +6 A huge bolt of lightning flashes through the center of a tremendous supercell storm over farmlands in Nebraska +6 The bizarre UFO-shaped phenomenon is created by a rapid updraft of warm air, which creates a cyclone with winds as fast as 170mph Ms Neufield, from Calgary in Alberta, Canada, said: 'Getting the shot through the clouds was luck and great timing. 'The lightning was very consistent and I just set my camera up at a nice exposure for the natural light on the event of a strike. 'Then I got very lucky.' The unusual shaped clouds are part of a low precipitation supercell storm where updrafts of air rotate around a vertical axis, creating UFO-like shapes. The formations last for around 30 to 40 minutes, eventually becoming smaller until they disappear. Ms Neufield said: 'The power of nature fills me with awe. +6 The sun breaks under the monstrous clouds, which were seen by freelance photographer Vanessa Neufield, from Calgary, Alberta, Canada +6 Ms Neufield said she was just setting up her camera when the lightning struck, and that she 'got lucky' with the jaw-dropping images +6 Swirling above the farmyards below, the supercell looks like something out of a sci-fi film as it begins to drift away +6 Supercell storms can happen anywhere in the world, but they are most commonly found in the Midwest of the U.S., as well as the plains areas of South America. 'I'm a photographer so I'm extremely visual and there is nothing more stunning than a storm to me and I'm right in my element then. 'I have seen and photographed many tornadoes but the storms that produce great cloud structure and lightning instead are my favorite. 'Lighting sometimes scares me more than a tornado. 'I usually can't tell how close I'm getting to where the lightning is but I'm usually very careful and have thankfully only had one close call.' WHAT IS A SUPERCELL STORM? A supercell, which is not always a thunderstorm, is a weather phenomenon in which converging low level winds create an updraft which rotates on a vertical axis. This is also known as a mesocyclone. Warm air in the mesocyclone can rise as fast as 170mph. Supercells are known to create large hailstones, damaging winds, and tornadoes, and can last for hours if conditions permit. These kind of storms can take place anywhere in the world, but are most commonly found in the Midwest of the United States, as well as the plains areas of South America. Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

A bolt of lightning has been spotted soaring from the top of a cloud before looping back on itself and striking the ground in Australia. The image was captured over Jaibru in Australia by an off-duty emergency services officer who dubbed the phenomenon 'looping lightning'. Upwards lightning is possible, but is very rare - with current estimates suggesting less than one per cent of lightning strikes travelling in an ‘upwards’ direction. And storm chaser Dan Robinson believes 'looped lightning' is simply a trick of perspective, based on where the viewer is stood, meaning it appears to rise and loop even though it is not. +6 This image was captured over Jaibru in Australia by emergency services officer Scott Murray, who dubbed the phenomenon looping lightning'. Upwards lightning is very rare - estimates suggest less than 1% of lightning travels in an ‘upwards’ direction. But storm chaser Dan Robinson said 'looped' lighting may instead be a trick of perspective, based on where a viewer is stood, meaning it appears to loop when it's not The 'looping lightning' image was taken by Scott Murray and the bolt appears to shot out and up from the cloud before curving towards the Earth. Typically lightning is seen from a distance, or from the side, and it is rare to capture an image almost directly beneath a bolt. As a result, this can skew its perspective. In particular, if the bolt is travelling straight at the viewer - so they are almost looking up the length of the bolt -  it can make it appear as if it is curving because of its forked nature. There have been examples of lightning appearing to make complete circular loops, but this is also a trick of the eye. Lightning is caused by the build up of electrostatic charge in clouds. As they develop, air acts as an insulator between the positive and negative charges in the cloud, and between the cloud and the ground.  WHAT IS UPWARDS LIGHTNING? Upwards lightning is normally caused by a preceding flash moving from the cloud to Earth, and involves a bolt moving from the ground to the clouds. The preceding flash causes an electrical field change, which allows an upward positive leader to originate from a tall object like a building or wind turbine. During winter snow storms, it is possible for tall objects to initiate upwards lightning without preceding flashes. Upwards lightning is very rare - estimates suggest less than one per cent of lightning travels in an ‘upwards’ direction. It is typically classified into three groups. The smallest are starters, which extend up to a altitude of 12 to 19 miles (20 to 30km). Next are jets, which extend 25 to 31 miles (40 to 50km), and the last are gigantic jets, which reach 44 to 56 miles (70 to 90km).  Positive charge builds up in one area of the cloud, while negative charges build up in the other - typically the top and bottom of the cloud respectively. If this build up of charge reaches a certain level, the insulating capacity of the air breaks causing the negative charges to escape or 'leap' from the cloud either onto another another cloud - known as sheet lightning - or to the ground. As negative charges gather in the bottom of a cloud, the negative charges in the ground are forced from the surface, leaving it positive. When a so-called 'streamer' of negative charges leaps from the bottom of the cloud, it is therefore attracted to the ground, which in turn emits a streamer of positive charges from the ground up. In particular, the negative 'stepped leaders' fork downwards looking for the best conductive path to Earth, with the least resistance. This is why these stepped leaders typically travel straight down from the cloud. As the streams connect it causes electrons to jump, or 'return the stroke', and an electrical current begins flowing, which creates lightning. This flash temporarily equalises the charged regions, until the opposite charges build up again. Lightning can occur between opposite charges within the thunderstorm cloud, known as intra-cloud lightning, or between opposite charges in the cloud and on the ground, referred to as cloud-to-ground lightning. And there are roughly five to 10 times as many cloud flashes as there are cloud-to-ground flashes. Within these strikes are two types of ground flashes known as natural and triggered. The latter includes strikes to very tall structures, planes, rockets and towers and goes from the ground up to the cloud. Natural lightning is cloud to ground. Upwards lightning is normally caused by a preceding flash moving from the cloud to Earth, and involves a bolt moving from the ground to the clouds. The preceding flash causes an electrical field change, which allows an upward positive leader to originate from a tall object. Upwards lightning is very rare - estimates suggest less than one per cent of lightning travels in an ‘upwards’ direction - and it is typically classified into three groups, based on peak altitude. The smallest are starters, which extend up to a maximum altitude of 12 to 19 miles (20 to 30km). Next are jets, which extend 25 to 31 miles (40 to 50km), and the last are gigantic jets, which reach 44 to 56 miles (70 to 90km). +6 Lightning is caused by a build up of electrostatic charges. As they develop, air acts as an insulator between the positive and negative charges in the cloud, and between the cloud and the ground. If this build up reaches a certain level, the insulating capacity of the air breaks. The negative charge 'leaps' from the cloud either onto another another cloud - known as sheet lightning - or to the ground (pictured) +6 When a so-called 'streamer' of negative charges leaps from the bottom of the cloud, it is attracted to the ground, which in turn emits a streamer of positive charges from the ground up. In particular, the negative 'stepped leaders' fork downwards looking for the best conductive path to Earth, with the least resistance. This is why these stepped leaders typically travel straight down from the cloud (pictured) However, the upward movement of the lightning in Mr Murray's image doesn't appear to extend as high as other forms of upward lightning, and storm chaser Dan Robinson suggests an alternative. He explained: 'Sometimes a lightning channel will have the illusion of 'looping back' on itself or having bright knots in it. The reason behind this phenomenon is quite simple. 'Lightning is three-dimensional - it 'zigs' and 'zags' in all directions. +6 As the streams connect, it causes electrons to jump, or 'return the stroke', and an electrical current begins flowing, which creates lightning. This flash temporarily equalises the charged regions, until the opposite charges build up again. Upwards lightning is normally caused by a preceding flash moving from the cloud to Earth, and involves a bolt moving from the ground to the clouds +6 Upward lightning is typically classified into three groups. Starters extend up to an altitude of 19 miles (30km), jets extend to 31 miles (50km), and the gigantic jets reach up to 56 miles (90km). The upward movement in Mr Murray's image doesn't appear to extend this high, however, and storm chaser Dan Robinson said if part of a bolt is coming straight at you, it will appear to loop back on itself even when it's not 'Most of the time you'll view a lightning channel from the side and it'll appear to travel in one general direction only.  'However, if that lightning bolt - or part of the lightning bolt - is coming straight at you, that is, you are looking at it from one end. It will appear to loop back on itself, sometimes even appearing go back upwards. 'The bright knots in a lightning channel you sometimes see in lightning photographs are the result of the same phenomenon - they are just smaller, tighter 'loops'. It appears brighter because there is more than one section of lightning channel 'overlapping' in the camera's frame.' The Met Office's lightning expert Sven-Erik Enno told MailOnline: 'On the particular photo it seems that the upper part of the channel may be pointed towards the observer. 'In such perspective the upward movement of the horizontal channel may be more amplified - the approaching horizontal channel seems to rise higher in the sky as approaching plane seems to rise higher above the horizon although its real altitude does not change.' +6 The map above shows the average yearly counts of lightning flashes per square kilometer from 1995 to 2013. Areas with the fewest number of flashes each year are grey and purple; areas with the largest number of lightning flashes - as many as 150 per year per square kilometer (0.4 square miles) - are bright pink. The Democratic Republic of Congo was found to have the most over the period Africa is the lightning capital of the world, according to map that tracked EVERY bolt of lightning to hit the earth for 18 years A Nasa map has revealed which parts of the world experience the most flashes of lightning ever year Democratic Republic of Congo and Lake Maracaibo in northwestern Venezuela experienced the most According to the satellite observations, lightning occurs more often over land than it does over oceans And lightning also seems to happen more often closer to the equator, owing to the hotter temperatures An amazing map revealed by Nasa has shown where lightning occurs most on Earth. The map reveals average yearly counts of lightning flashes per square kilometre from 1995 to 2013. And the results show that the highest amounts of lightning flashes occur in the far eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and Lake Maracaibo in northwestern Venezuela. Scroll down for video +4 The map above shows the average yearly counts of lightning flashes per square kilometer from 1995 to 2013. Areas with the fewest number of flashes each year are grey and purple; areas with the largest number of lightning flashes - as many as 150 per year per square kilometer (0.4 square miles) - are bright pink. The Democratic Republic of Congo was found to have the most over the period The map was created using data from Nasa’s Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission satellite, and the Orbview-1/Microlab satellite. In the map, the areas with the largest number of flashes - up to 150 per year per square kilometre (0.4 square miles) - are shown in bright pink. The areas with the least are grey and purple. According to the satellite observations, lightning occurs more often over land than it does over oceans. And it also seems to happen more often closer to the equator. The higher frequency over land is because solid earth absorbs sunlight and heats up faster than water, so there is greater atmospheric instability - leading to the formation of storms. And Nasa’s Dr Daniel Cecil, a member of the Global Hydrology and Climate Centre’s lightning team, said the data also shows interesting trends. The Weather Channel talk through NASA's lightning map   +4 According to the satellite observations, lightning occurs more often over land than it does over oceans. Shown here is a passing storm over the African countryside with forked lightning on 10 October 2013 +4 The higher frequency over land is because solid earth absorbs sunlight and heats up faster than water, so there is greater atmospheric instability - leading to the formation of storms. Shown is a storm hitting the city of Tripoli in Libya LIGHTNING MOST POWERFUL IN THE MORNING Researchers have found that regardless of where you are in the world, lightning bolts are at their most powerful at 8am. This is because there are fewer particles in the atmosphere overnight, so it takes a more powerful charge to overcome the extra distance between these particles and release the bolt of power. For example, a large number of flashes were seen during the month of May in the Brahmaputra Valley of far eastern India. The heating and weather patterns are unstable and changeable at that time-just before the onset of the monsoon, which brings plenty of rain but much less lightning. In contrast, locations in Central Africa and Northwestern South America have large amounts of lightning throughout the entire year. Dr Cecil noted that more years of data has not necessarily brought notable big-picture differences when compared to earlier maps. ‘The longer record allows us to more confidently identify some of these finer details,' he said. 'We can examine seasonality, and variability through the day and year-to-year.’ +4 This comparable Nasa map shows global lightning strikes from January 1998 to 2013 from the NASA/MSFC Lightning Imaging Senso

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